La kutongerwa rufu Ndiyo imwe yenyaya dzisingambosiyi munhu asina hanya: inosanganisa nhoroondo, mutemo, chitendero, zvematongerwo enyika, manzwiro akasimba, uye, pamusoro pezvose, gakava riripo pamusoro pemiganhu yesimba renyika. Nhasi, nyika dzinopfuura zvikamu zviviri muzvitatu pasi rose dzakasarudza kurega kurishandisa, asi kuchine nyika dzakawanda dzinorichengetedza uye dzinorishandisa nematanho akasiyana-siyana.
Chirango ichi chikuru chakabva pakuva chishandiso chinoshandiswa zvakanyanya muhurongwa hwese hwekuranga pasi rose kusvika pakuva chirango. mibvunzo inoramba ichibvunzwa Nezvikonzero zvetsika, zvemutemo, uye zvinoshanda. Kunzwisisa kuti zvakashanduka sei, nzira dzakashandiswa, zvinotaurwa nezvibvumirano zvepasi rose, uye nharo dzinotsigirwa nedzinopokana nadzo zvinobatsira kuwana pfungwa yakajeka yekuti nei, muzana remakore rechi21, zvichiri nyaya inokakavadzana.
Pfupiso yenhoroondo yemutongo werufu
Kubva muzvinyorwa zvekare zvevanhu, chirango cherufu Yave iri chikamu chehurongwa hwekutonga. Maguta eSumerian, Israeri yekare, Bhabhironi, Persia, Girisi, neRoma aigara achishandisa kuuraya kuranga mhosva dzakasiyana-siyana. Yaive isiri nzira inoshamisa, asi chishandiso chezuva nezuva chekuchengetedza runyararo nekuteerera mutemo.
Mukati meMiddle Ages, mutongo werufu wakaramba wakajairika muWestern Europe, Byzantium, uye munzvimbo zhinji dzeAmerica isati yasvika Columbian. MaInca, maMuisca, maAztec, maMixtec nemaZapotec Vaiuraya vanhu nekuda kwemhosva dzakasiyana-siyana, vachivabatanidza muhurongwa hwavo hwemutemo nehwechitendero.
Nekusvika kweNguva Yemazuva Ano uye, gare gare, kujekeswa kwechirango ichi, huzivi uye zvematongerwo enyika kwakatanga kukura. Vanyori vakaita sa Cesare Beccaria Havana kungoshora kusaruramisira kwetsika kwekuuraya muzita rehurumende chete, asiwo kusabatsira kwechirango cherufu senzira yekuderedza mhosva. Panguva imwe chete, pakati peChimurenga cheFrance, guillotine yakava chiratidzo cheKutonga kweTerror, ichiratidza kuti chirango cherufu chaigona kushandiswa zvakanyanya uye mune zvematongerwo enyika.
Muzana remakore rechi20, hurumende dzechisimba nedzehudzvanyiriri dzakashandisa kuurayiwa senzira yakananga yekudzvinyirira zvematongerwo enyika. Zvisinei, pakupera kweHondo Yenyika II, matare epasi rose muNuremberg neTokyo akaramba achifungisisa nekushandisa mutongo werufu kune mhosva dzakakomba dzakaitwa panguva yehondo, izvo zvakavhura imwe gakava pamusoro pekuti wakakodzera here munyaya dzinoshamisa.
Panguva imwe chete, mienzaniso yekubviswa kwekutanga kwemutemo iripo kubva mukare uye munguva dzepakati pezana remakore rekutanga AD. Muzana remakore rekutanga AD, mambo wechiBuddha Amandagamani muSri Lanka akabvisa chirango cherufu panguva yekutonga kwake, uye vamwe vevakamutevera vakateverawo, vachifemerwa nepfungwa yekuti utsvene hwehupenyuMuChina, panguva yehumambo hweTang, Mambo Xuanzong akabvisa mutongo werufu pakati pezana remakore rechisere, kunyange zvazvo mutongo wacho wakanga usiri wechigarire. MuJapan, Mambo Shomu akaubvisa muna 724, wakavakirwawo pamitemo yechiBuddha; wakadzorerwa muna 810, wakabviswazve muna 818 naMambo Saga, wakadzorerwa muna 1159, uye wakaramba uchishanda kubvira ipapo.
MuEurope yeMiddle Ages, vanhu vakasiyana-siyana vakabudawo vachipesana. MuEngland, rugwaro rwacho rwakabudawo. Mhedziso gumi nembiri dzeLollards (1395) akatotaura nezvekuramba kurangwa kwerufu. Gare gare, Thomas More, mubhuku rake rinonzi "Utopia," akapikisa kurangwa uku nekuda kwezvikonzero zvechitendero, kunyangwe iye pachake akaurayiwa muna 1535 nekuda kwekuramba kugamuchira kurambana kwaHenry VIII.
Nguva chaiyo yekuchinja kwemazuva ano inowanzoiswa muna 1764, nekuburitswa muItaly kwebhuku raCesare Beccaria rinonzi "On Crimes and Punishments." Mariri, akataura kuti kurangwa kunofanira kuenzana, uye kuti kurangwa kwerufu kwaive kusaruramisira uye kusashanda zvakanaka uye kuti inogona kutokurudzira mhosva dzakawanda kana ikashanda pamhosva diki. Chechi yeKaturike yakashora basa iri uye yakaisa bhuku iri paIndex of Prohibited Texts kusvika muna 1966.
Kufunga kwaBeccaria kwakakurudzira shanduko dzakajeka. Leopold wekuHabsburg, uyo panguva iyoyo aiva Grand Duke weTuscany uye Mambo weAustria weramangwana, akabvisa zviri pamutemo mutongo werufu muTuscany musi wa30 Mbudzi 1786, mushure memakore akawanda asina kuurayiwa kubvira muna 1769. Akarayira kuparadzwa kwezvishandiso zvekuurayiwa, uye izvi zvinoonekwa semutemo wekutanga wemazuva ano wekurambidzwa, kunyangwe zvaive zvenguva pfupi: muna 1790 akaudzorerazve nekuda kwemhosva dzakati dzakabatana nekusagadzikana kwezvematongerwo enyika. Nhasi, 30 Mbudzi inopembererwa muTuscany uye mumaguta angangoita mazana matatu pasi rose se Maguta eZuva reHupenyu Hwese.
Kushanduka-shanduka uye kubviswa kwemutemo muSpain neLatin America
MuSpain, nhoroondo yechirango cherufu yakaoma uye yakabatana zvikuru nekuchinja kwezvematongerwo enyika. Pakutanga kwezana remakore rechi19, Joseph Bonaparte akarayira muna 1809 kuti kuuraya vanhu kuitwe ne garrote chete, kunyange zvazvo akachinja chisarudzo ichi nguva pfupi yakatevera. Muna 1832, kusungirirwa kwakabviswa zvachose, uye garrote yakagadzwa senzira yekuurawa. nzira yakasiyana yekuita, hurongwa hwakaramba huripo kusvika pabviswa zvachose mutongo werufu.
Republic Yechipiri yeSpain Spain yakabvisa mutongo werufu muma1930, kunyange zvazvo wakadzoserwazve nguva pfupi yakatevera. Munguva yehudzvanyiriri hwaFrancoist, mhosva dzairangwa nerufu dzakawedzera, uye dzaishandiswa pamhosva dzakajairika uye kuranga vanopikisa zvematongerwo enyika. Kuurayiwa kwekupedzisira kwakaitwa naGarrote musi wa2 Kurume 1974, apo Salvador Puig Antich, murwi weuto reMIL (Movement for Liberation), naHeinz Chez, murume asina nyika wekuPoland akabatwa nemhosva yekuuraya mupurisa weCivil Guard, vakaurayiwa.
Kushandiswa kwe vile club Zvakakodzera kutsanangurwa zvakasiyana. Yakatangwa senzira yega yepamutemo yekuuraya naFerdinand VII muna 1828, inonzi yakaratidzwa senzira "ine hunhu" pane kuturikwa, kunyange zvazvo mukuita kwayo yakaguma nerufu rwakasimba nekudzipwa. Shanduro dzekare dzechiridzwa ichi, dzakavakirwa patambo yaipfuudzwa nepaburi redanda raidzipa munhu akatongerwa rufu, dzaivepo kare muzana remakore rechi15 nerechi16.
Mumutemo, Mutemo weSpain Penal Code wa1848 wakaratidza zvakajeka kuti mutongo werufu waizoitwa "nekupfurwa papuratifomu," nokudaro zvichideredza dzimwe nzira dzekare dzakadai sekupisa padanda kana kupfura zvikwata. Zvichienderana nezvidzidzo zvegweta rematsotsi. María Dolores Serrano TérragaTichitarisa pamitongo yakapihwa nehurumende pakati pa1870 na1961, avhareji yegore negore yemitongo yerufu yekuponda muzana remakore rechi20 yaive 5,6, zvichienzaniswa ne13,8 muzana remakore rechi19, zvichiratidza kudzikira kuri kuramba kuchienderera mberi.
Mutongo werufu wakabviswa muRepublican Penal Code ya1932, yakadzoserwa muna 1934 nekuda kwemhosva dzakakomba dzinopesana nerunyararo rweveruzhinji, uye yakadzoserwa mumutemo wemhosva dzechivanhu neMutemo weChirevo wa5 Chikunguru, 1938. Pakati pa1928 na1930, hapana mutongo werufu wakapihwa nekuda kwekuponda, uye kusvika muna 1935 ndipo pakazoshandiswazve kumhosva iyoyo. Kutaura zvazviri, Mutongo wekupedzisira werufu wekuponda wakatanga muna 1961.Izvi zvinoreva kuti, makore gumi nemanomwe chirango cherufu chisati chabviswa zviri pamutemo, chakanga chatomira kushandiswa pakurwisa kuponda kwakajairika.
Kuurayiwa kwekupedzisira nekuda kwezvikonzero zvematongerwo enyika kwakaitika musi wa27 Gunyana 1975, apo hurumende yakapfura Juan Paredes Manot (Txiki) naÁngel Otaegui, magandanga eETA, naJosé Luis Sánchez Bravo, Xosé Humberto Baena Alonso, naRamón García Sanz, nhengo dzeFRAP. Vamwe vanhu gumi nemumwe vakaregererwa. Panguva iyoyo, majeri ekuSpain akanga achiri azere nevasungwa vezvematongerwo enyika, uye pakanga paine sangano rakasimba renyika nerepasi rose raida kuti vasunungurwe. ruregerero uye kuguma kwehudzvanyiriri.
Nebumbiro reMutemo ra1978 Mutongo werufu wakabviswa muSpain, kunze kwezvingave zvakatarwa nemutemo wemauto munguva dzehondo. Mutemo uyu wakaramba uripo kusvika pakuvandudzwa kweMilitary Criminal Code muna 1985, izvo zvakabvisawo mukana iwoyo. Mushure mezvo, Spain yakasimbisa Second Optional Protocol kuInternational Covenant on Civil and Political Rights uye Protocol Nhamba 6 kuEuropean Convention on Human Rights, zvichibatanidza zviri pamutemo kubviswa kwayo zvachose.
MuLatin America, shanduko iyi yakaratidza kuti pane nzira yakajeka yekubvisa zvachose chitendero. Venezuela United States yakabvisa mutongo werufu muna 1863, ichiteverwa neCosta Rica muna 1882. Brazil yakaubvisa muna 1889, kunyangwe pakava nenguva dzakatevera dzekudzoserwa kwemutemo uye kubviswa kwacho zvakare. Ecuador yakaubvisa muna 1906, Uruguay muna 1907, Colombia muna 1910, uye Argentina muna 1921, kunyangwe munyika yekupedzisira maitiro acho akanga asina kuenzana uye kubviswa zvachose hakuna kuitwa kusvika muna 2008.
Mexico yakatora matanho ekufambira mberi: Federal Penal Code ya1871 yakabvisa chirango cherufu kuvakadzi nevaya vane makore anopfuura makumi manomwe, asi kubviswa zvachose kwemutemo wehurumende hakuna kuitwa kusvika muna 1929. Mushure mezvo, imwe neimwe, nyika dzakabatanidzwa dzakabvisa chirango cherufu kubva mumitemo yavo yemhosva, zvichiguma muna 1975 nedunhu reSonora. Kubva muna 2005, Bumbiro reMitemo reMexico rakarambidza pachena chirango cherufu. Chisungo 22.
Mamiriro ezvinhu aripo iye zvino pasi rose
Kubva panguva yeHondo Yenyika II, kwakajeka maitiro epasi rose kuenda kukubvisa mutongo werufu. Muma1980, kuwedzera kwehutongi hwegutsaruzhinji muLatin America kwakakurumidzisa huwandu hwenyika dzakabvisa mutongo uyu muhurongwa hwadzo hwemitemo, uye mumakumi emakore achangopfuura shanduko dzezvematongerwo enyika dzakawedzera munenge makondinendi ese.
Zvichienderana nedata kubva kuUnited Nations nemasangano akaita seAmnesty International, nyika dzinopfuura zvikamu zviviri kubva muzvitatu pasi rose dzabvisa mutongo werufu, kungave de jure kana de facto. Mumakore makumi maviri chete, nyika dzinopfuura makumi mashanu dzakagadzirisa mitemo yadzo kuti dzirambidze. Kunyanya, dzimwe nyika dzakagadzirisa mitemo yadzo kuti dzirambidze mutongo uyu. Nyika dze108 Vakaibvisa pamhosva dzese, 7 vakaibvisa pamhosva dzemutemo wevanhu vose chete (vachiichengetedza pamhosva dzinoshamisa dzakadai semhosva dzehondo), uye 29 vane mutemo wepamutemo wekumisa kuurayiwa kwevanhu. Pamwe chete, matunhu 144 ikozvino abviswa zvachose kana kuti zvishoma.
Kune rumwe rutivi, nyika nenzvimbo dzinosvika makumi mashanu neshanu dziri kuramba dzichishandisa mutongo werufu. Muna 2017, Amnesty International yakanyora 993 vanhu vakaurayiwa, nhamba iri pasi pe1.032 muna 2016 ne1.634 muna 2015, uye yakakwirira kupfuura 607 muna 2014, kunyangwe zvichifanira kurangarirwa kuti nhamba idzi hadzisanganisire zviuru zvevanhu vanogona kuurayiwa munyika dzinobata ruzivo urwu se chakavanzika chehurumendekunyanya China.
Kunze kweChina, kuuraya vanhu vazhinji kwakawanda kwakaitwa munyika shoma. Muna 2017, 84% yekuuraya vanhu vanozivikanwa yakaitika muIran, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, nePakistan. Pakupera kwa2019, nyika dzinosvika 106 dzakanga dzabvisa zvachose mutongo werufu, uye 142 dzakanga dzarambidza mutongo uyu pamutemo kana mukuita. Gore iroro, kuuraya vanhu vanosvika 657 kwakanyorwa zviri pamutemo pasi rose (kunze kweChina), uye 86% yavo yakanga yakaitwa munyika ina chete: Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Iraq neIran.
Muna 2020, mushumo wepagore weAmnesty International wakaratidza zvakare kuti China ndiyo iri pamberi pasi rose pakuurayiwa kwevanhu, kunyangwe kusajeka kwehuwandu hwenyaya idzi kunoita kuti zvisakwanise kuziva nhamba chaidzo. Pakati penyika dzine data riripo, Iran yakanyora vanhu 246 vakaurayiwa, Egypt 107, Iraq 45, Saudi Arabia 27, uye United States 17. Dzimwe nyika dzakaurayiwa vanhu dzaisanganisira Somalia, Yemen, India, neOman, nepo munzvimbo dzakadai seJapan, Pakistan, neBelarus, hapana vanhu vakaurayiwa vakanyoreswa gore iroro, kusiyana negore rapfuura.
Huwandu hwese hwemitongo yerufu yakapihwa muna 2020 hwaive pasi pe1.477, uye huwandu hwe483 hwakaurayiwa (vakadzi gumi nevatanhatu), zvichireva kudzikira kwe26% zvichienzaniswa negore ra2019. Amnesty International pachayo inobvuma kuti Denda rinonzi covid-19 Izvi zvingave zvakakanganisa kudzikira kwemabasa ematare edzimhosva, nokudaro, kudzikiswa kwechinguvana kwekutongwa kwemhosva.
Muna 2020, kuurayiwa kwevanhu kwakataurwa muna Nyika dze18Zvishoma kaviri pane gore rapfuura. Mune dzimwe nyika uko mutongo werufu uri kushanda, dzakadai seRussia, South Korea, neAlgeria, hapana akaurayiwa kwemakore anopfuura gumi, saka vanoonekwa sevari pedyo nekubviswa zvachose. MuEurope, hapana kuurayiwa kwakanyorwa, kunyange hazvo Belarus yaive nemitongo mina yasara ichimirira kuderedzwa kana kuurayiwa.
Nyika dzinoda kubvisa rusununguko, kuchengetedza rusununguko uye nyika dzinoda kumisa rusununguko
Parizvino, nyika dzinogona kuiswa mumapoka akasiyana-siyana zvichienderana nehukama hwadzo ne kutongerwa rufuChekutanga, kune vanhu vanotsigira zvachose kubviswa kwemutemo, avo vakabvisa mutongo werufu kune chero rudzi rwemhosva nemamiriro ezvinhu. Izvi zvinosanganisira nyika zhinji dzemuEurope, chikamu chikuru cheLatin America, nyika dzakawanda dzemuAfrica, uye nyika dzinoverengeka dziri muOceania neAsia.
Pakati pevaya vakarwisa kubvisa rusununguko rwenyika, kusanganisira Albania, Germany, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Canada, Colombia, Costa Rica, Croatia, Denmark, Ecuador, Spain, France, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Mexico, Norway, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, United Kingdom, neCzech Republic. South AfricaSweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, Uruguay, Venezuela kana Djibouti, pamwe chete nematunhu madiki akadai seSan Marino, Holy See kana Monaco.
Chechipiri, kune nyika dzakabvisa mutemo uyu nekuda kwemhosva dzemutemo wevanhu vose chete, zvichireva kuti dzine mukana wekuushandisa muzviitiko zvisingawanzoitiki (zvinowanzoenderana nemhosva dzehondo kana dzehondo). Nyika dzakadai se [isa mienzaniso pano] dzinowira muchikamu ichi. Brazil, Chile neIsraelKazakhstan, Peru, El Salvador kana Guatemala, uko mutemo wevanhu vazhinji unoratidza kuti vanhu vanorega kushandisa kodzero dzavo, asi musuwo hausati wavharwa zvachose.
Padanho rechitatu panoonekwa vanonzi vanopikisa zvematongerwo enyika Uye vanhu vanopikisa kodzero dzekubvisa zvachose mutemo. Vekutanga (semuenzaniso, Brazil, Peru, kana Chile pane dzimwe nguva) vanochengeta chirango cherufu zviri pamutemo mumamiriro ezvinhu akadai sehondo, asi havana kuchishandisa kwenguva yakareba. Vekupedzisira vanochengetedza chirango cherufu mumutemo wavo, asi havana kuuraya munhu kwemakore, kana makumi emakore, kazhinji nekuda kwekuti pane kurambidzwa kwepamutemo kana tsika yagara iripo yekusaita izvi; Morocco neRussia mienzaniso yerudzi urwu.
Kune rumwe rutivi kune nyika dzinoramba dzichitonga vanhu, idzo dziri kuramba dzichitonga nekuuraya vanhu. Dzimwe, dzakadai seUnited States neJapan, dzinoganhurira mutongo werufu kune mhosva dzakajairika, kunyanya kuponda zvine hutsinye. Dzimwe nyika dzinoramba dzichitonga vanhu, zvisinei, dzinofunga nezvemhosva dzakawanda dzerufu, dzinosanganisira mhosva dzehupfumi, kutengesa zvinodhaka, uye zviito zvinonzi zvinofanirwa kuitwa. kutuka, kuramba kutenda, kana dzidziso dzenhema, uye kunyange maitiro epabonde akadai seungochani kana upombwe.
Kune misiyano yakakura pakati pevanhu vanochengetedza kuchengetedzwa kwemitemo. Vamwe vanobvuma, zviri papepa, mimwe mitemo yepasi rose: kurambidzwa kwekuuraya vanhu kunze kwedare, vimbiso shoma dzemitemo, mukana wekukwidza nyaya, mukana wekuregererwa, kudzingwa kwevana vadiki, vanhu vakaremara, kana vakadzi vane pamuviri, nezvimwewo. Vamwe, zvisinei, vanoshandisa mutongo werufu zvisina tsarukano, ne maitiro asina vimbiso uye nekushandiswa kwezvirango zvematongerwo enyika; nyaya dzinowanzotaurwa nezvadzo ndedzinoti Iran, China, kana Afghanistan.
China ndiyo nyika ine huwandu hwakanyanya hwevagari vemo kuurayiwaKunyangwe nhamba idzi dziri ruzivo rwepachivande uye rwunoonekwa seruzivo rwehurumende, fungidziro dzakasiyana-siyana dzinoratidza kuti kune zviuru zvevanhu vanourayiwa gore rega rega, pamwe kupfuura munyika dzese dzakabatanidzwa. Iran inotevera, uko mazana evanhu vanourayiwa akanyorwa mumakore mashoma chete, mazhinji acho achiurayiwa nepachivande.
MuUnited States, chirango cherufu chiri kushanda padanho rehurumende uye mune dzimwe nyika. Texas ine chikamu chikuru chekuuraya vanhu: pakati pa1976 na2006 yakaita vanhu vanosvika 370, uye pakati pa1976 na2021 nyika yese yakaurayiwa [nhamba isipo]. 1.532 vanhu22 vavo nekuda kwemhosva dzakaitwa vachiri vana vadiki. Dzimwe nguva Singapore yave iri pakati penyika ine vanhu vakawanda vanourayiwa pamunhu mumwe nemumwe, ine vanhu vashoma vanourayiwa, nepo Iran, semuenzaniso, yakanyora vanhu 159 vanourayiwa muna 2004.
Mhosva dzinorangwa uye nzira dzekuurawa nadzo
Kubva muzana remakore rechi19, runyorwa rwemhosva dzinorangwa nerufu rwakaderedzwa mumatunhu mazhinji. Nhasi, munyika dzine mutongo werufu, runonyanya kushandiswa ku mhosva dzechisimba (kuponda, kuponda munhu, kunyanya kuponda kwakakomba). Munguva dzehondo, mamwe makodhi anoonawo kupandukira hurumende, kusora, kuparadza, kana kutiza sezviito zvinorangwa nerufu.
Munyika zhinji dzine maMuslim akawanda uko mutemo weSharia unoshandiswa, chirango cherufu chinoshandiswa kune mamwe maitiro anoonekwa sezvivi zvakakomba. Saka, muIran, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Mauritania, neSomalia, mitongo yerufu yakapihwa kune vanoita zvepabonde zveungochani, kunyangwe kana zvichiitwa pachivande. MuSaudi Arabia, Iran, neAfghanistan, upombwe hunogona kutungamira mukuurayiwa, uye munyika dzakadai seAfghanistan, Iran, Yemen, Mauritania, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, neSomalia, rufu rwunotarisirwa... kuramba kutendaKureva kuti, kusiya chiIslam. Saudi Arabia yakaurayawo vanhu nekuda kwekutuka Mwari kana uroyi.
Munhoroondo yese, nzira dzakasiyana-siyana dzekuuraya dzave dzichishandiswa, kazhinji dzine hutsinye hunoshamisa. Idzi dzinosanganisira kupisa padanda, kuturika, kudimbura musoro, miseve, kutema nematombo, kupfura, kukanda kubva pamawere, kukandwa kuzvikara, kunyura mumvura, kuputswa kwemadziro pamusoro pevakatongerwa rufu, kuvharirwa madziro vari vapenyu, kudzipwa, kubayiwa, kuchekwa-chekwa, kurovererwa pamuchinjikwa, kuchekwa muchetura, kumanikidzwa kumedza mutobvu wakanyungudutswa, kupwanywa nengoro, kutsikwa nenzou, uye electrocution kana kurovererwa, pakati pezvimwe.
Kubva pakupera kwezana remakore rechi18 zvichienda mberi, pakanga paine katsika, kanenge pachena, kekutsvaga nzira "dzine hunhu" dzaideredza kutambura kunoonekwa. France yakaunza guillotine Senzira yekuurawa yainzi inokurumidza uye isingarwadzi, United Kingdom yakarambidza kuturikwa kwemunhu mushure mekugurwa nhengo dzemuviri nemabhiza pakutanga kwezana remakore rechi19, uye Spain yakabvisa kuturikwa kwemunhu muna 1832 nekuda kwehutsinye hwayo uye hunhu hunonyadzisa, ichitsiva nekuiswa garroting.
MuUnited States, chigaro chemagetsi nekamuri regesi zvakaunzwa senzira dzekugadzirisa matanda emagetsi pakupera kwezana remakore rechi19 nekutanga kwezana remakore rechi20, zvichinzi zvaikonzera marwadzo mashoma. Munguva pfupi yapfuura, jekiseni rinouraya Yakatotsiva nzira idzi zvachose, kunyange hazvo nyaya dzakawanda dzakakundikana dzakaita kuti vanhu vasava nechokwadi nezvayo, zvichikonzera kushoropodzwa kwakasimba kwehuwandu hwekutambudzika kunounzwa. Mune dzimwe nyika dzechiIslam, kuturikwa "zvishoma nezvishoma", kugurwa musoro nebakatwa, kuputsika kwemadziro pavanhu vakatongerwa rufu, kana kutotemwa nematombo zvichiri kushandiswa.
MuChina, ruzivo rwakawanikwa pakutanga kwema2000 rwairatidza kuti kupfura ndiyo nzira inonyanya kushandiswa, kunyangwe kubaya munhu nejekiseni rekuuraya rave kupararira zvakanyanya. Sekureva kweAmnesty International, muna 2019 nzira dzekuuraya dzakanyorwa pasi rose dzaisanganisira kudimbura musoro, kutema munhu nemagetsi, kumuturika, kubaya munhu nejekiseni rekuuraya, uye kupfura munhu—runyorwa rwunoratidza kuti nzira dzechisimba uye dzinoshungurudza dzichiri kushandiswa.
Mutemo wepasi rose nemiganho pamusoro pemutongo werufu
Kunyange hazvo mutemo wepasi rose padanho repasi rose usati wazivisa kuti chirango cherufu pachacho chinogara chichipesana nekodzero dzevanhu, mumakumi emakore achangopfuura pane nharo dzakawanda dzave dzichikura. miganhu nezvivimbiso zviri kuramba zvichioma, pamwe chete nemitemo chaiyo yekukurudzira kubviswa kwazvo.
Chibvumirano chePasi Pose cheKodzero dzeVanhu nedzezvematongerwo enyika (ICCPR) cha1966, muChikamu chayo 6.2, chinobvumidza mutongo werufu chete kune mhosva dzakakomba zvikuru, chero bedzi mutemo waivepo panguva iyo mhosva yakaparwa, mutongo wacho uchipihwa nedare rine simba uye rekupedzisira, uye mitemo inoshandiswa haityori Chibvumirano cheKudzivirira nekuParadza Mhosva yeKuuraya Vanhu. Second Optional Protocol kuICCPR ya1989 inoenderera mberi ichiti: inosungisa Nyika dzakasaina chibvumirano ichi kuti dziite izvi. bvisa zvachose chirango cherufu.
Chibvumirano cheUnited Nations cheKodzero dzeMwana, muchikamu chayo che Chisungo 37Chibvumirano ichi chinorambidza kuiswa kwechirango cherufu uye kugara mujeri kweupenyu hwese pasina kusunungurwa kwemhosva dzakaitwa nevanhu vari pasi pemakore gumi nemasere ekuberekwa. Chibvumirano ichi chakabvumidzwa nenyika dzese pasi rose, uye UN Subcommittee on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights inoona kuurayiwa kwevana vaduku sekunopesana nemutemo wepasi rose. Pasinei neizvi, kubvira muna 1990, kuurayiwa kwevana vaduku kwakanyorwa munyika dzakadai seChina, Democratic Republic of Congo, Iran, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, United States, Yemen, uye mumatare echiIslam anoshandisa mutemo weSharia mune dzimwe nzvimbo dzeSomalia.
Munyika dziri pakati peAmerica, Chibvumirano cheAmerica cheKodzero dzeVanhu chinosimbisa muChikamu chayo chechina kuti, munyika dzisina kubvisa chirango cherufu, chinogona kushandiswa chete kumhosva dzakakomba zvikuru, nekutonga kwekupedzisira kwedare rine hunyanzvi uye zvichibva pamutemo waishanda mutemo usati waitwa. Uyezve, hachigone kuwedzerwa kumhosva dzachisati chapihwa, kana kushandiswa ku mhosva dzezvematongerwo enyika kana zvimwe zvine chekuita nazvo.
Munyika yeAfrica, Chibvumirano cheAfrica cheKodzero dzevanhu nedzevanhu Inobvuma kodzero yekurarama, kunyangwe pasina kutaura pachena nezvemutongo werufu. Zvisinei, zvimwe zviri mudunhu rino zvinoita: African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child inorambidza mutongo werufu kune mhosva dzakaitwa nevana vadiki, uye Maputo Protocol (Chinyorwa 4.2) inotaura kuti haifanirwe kushandiswa kumadzimai ane pamuviri kana kuyamwisa.
Komisheni yeAfrican Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights yakagadzira boka rekushanda panyaya yemutongo werufu uye yakabvumidza zvisungo muna 1999 na2008 kukurudzira nyika kuti dzitore zvirambidzo nechinangwa chekubvisa. Muna 2010, boka iri rakakurudzira kunyorwa kweimwe nzira yekubvisa mutongo werufu muAfrican Charter.
Munyaya yeEurope, hurongwa hwacho hunokwezva zvikuru. Chibvumirano Nhamba 6 Chibvumirano cheEuropean Convention on Human Rights, chakashanda kubvira muna 1983, chinorambidza mutongo werufu munguva yerunyararo. Nyika dzese dziri nhengo dzeDare reEurope dzakachisimbisa, kunze kweRussia neBelarus. Russia, kunyangwe yaisanganisira mutongo werufu mumutemo wayo uye isina kubvumidza Protocol Nhamba 6, yakaramba ichirambidza kubvira payakabatana neDare reEurope, uye Dare reConstitutional Court rayo rakaraira kubviswa kwemutongo werufu kubva muna Ndira 2010.
El Chibvumirano Nhamba 13 Chibvumirano cheEuropean Convention, chave kushanda kubvira muna 2002, chinoenderera mberi nekurambidza mutongo werufu chero mumamiriro ezvinhu api zvawo, kusanganisira munguva dzehondo. Dzimwe nyika dzeEurope kana nhengo dzeDare reEurope, dzakadai seRussia, Belarus, Armenia, France, Latvia, Poland, neSpain, hadzina kubvumidza chibvumirano ichi, uye nekudaro, zviri pamutemo, hadzisungirwe kubvisa mutongo werufu kana paine hondo kana njodzi yehondo iri pedyo. Panyaya yeSpain, kunyangwe Bumbiro reMitemo richitaura nezve mukana uyu, shanduko ya2006 yakarambidza pachena mutongo werufu kunyangwe munguva dzehondo, uye nyika yakasaina Second Optional Protocol kuICCPR.
European Union inoda kuti nyika dzinoda kubatana dzibvise zvachose mutongo werufu uye dzibvumidze Chibvumirano cheEuropean on Human Rights (Copenhagen criteria). Dare reEurope rine chinzvimbo chimwe chete, icho chakakurudzira kubviswa kwemutemo munyika dzakawanda dziri pedyo. Uyezve, EU Charter of Fundamental Rights inorambidza mutongo werufu uye inobvuma kodzero yevanhu vakatongerwa mhosva yekutevedzera mitemo yakanaka pakati peCharter, Convention, uye bumbiro remitemo yenyika. Nekuda kweizvozvo, mukuita, Mutongo werufu haushandiswe muEurope.
Nyaya yeTurkey inoratidza kuti mukana wekupinda muEuropean Union unogona sei kutungamira shanduko huru dzemutemo. Mushure mekuchengetedza mvumo yepamutemo kubva pakapedzisira kuurayiwa muna 1984, nyika yakachinja mutemo wayo muna 2002 kuti kubvisa mutongo werufu munguva yerunyararoUye muna 2004, yakagadzirisa Bumbiro rayo reMutemo kuti ribviswe chero zvodini. Gore iroro, yakasaina Protocol Nhamba 13 yeEuropean Convention on Human Rights.
Dare reParamende reDare reEurope rakaisawo kumanikidzwa kwenyika dzinoongorora dzichiri kushandisa mutongo werufu, dzakadai seUnited States neJapan, dzichiyambira kuti dzinogona kurasikirwa nechimiro chadzo chekucherechedza kana dzikasada kubviswa. European Union yakatoenderera mberi nekurambidza extradition kunyika dzavanogona kutongerwa rufu, kunze kwekunge paine vimbiso yekuti chirango ichi hachizoshandiswi.
Chekupedzisira, Dare reParamende reMatongerwo Enyika, rakagadzirwa neRome Statute (rave kushanda kubvira 2002), rinobvisa pachena chirango cherufu kubva murunyorwa rwaro rwezvirango: chirango chikuru ndeche kugara mujeri kweupenyu hweseIzvi zvinoshandawo kumatare edzimhosva epachivande akagadzwa mumakumi emakore achangopfuura kuti atonge mhosva dzehondo muYugoslavia, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, kana Cambodia.
Ruzivo rwechangobva kuitika, mhando dzenyika uye zvirambidzo
Ongororo yehuwandu hwezviverengero zvechangobva kuitika inoratidza kuti, kunyange hazvo huwandu hwese hwevasungwa huri kudzikira, chirango cherufu chinowanzo shandiswa mumamiriro ezvinhu anotyora kodzero dzevanhu. mutemo wenyika dzakawandaKuurayiwa kwevanhu pachena (sekuIran), kuurayiwa kwevana vadiki, kupomerwa mhosva kwevanhu vane hurema hwepfungwa, uye kushandiswa kwechirango cherufu pamhosva dzisingasanganisire kuponda, dzakadai sekutengesa zvinodhaka, dzimwe mhosva dzehupfumi, kubata chibharo, kupandukira, kusora, kana "zviito zvinopomerwa zvinopesana nekuchengetedzwa kwenyika," zvakanyorwa pasi.
Uye 2020, 123 States Vakavhota vachitsigira chisarudzo cheUN General Assembly chekumisa pasi rose kuurayiwa kwevanhu, nhamba yakakura zvikuru kupfuura pakutanga kwezana remakore. Kune Amnesty International, rutsigiro urwu rwuri kukura idanho rekutanga rinokosha mukubvisa kuurayiwa kwevanhu pasi rose.
MuUnited States, mepu yemukati yakasiyana zvikuru. Kubva muna 2022, 23 ye50 inoti Vakanga vabvisa zviri pamutemo mutongo werufu, uye vamwe vatatu vakaramba vachirambidza. Zvisinei, Texas chete ndiyo ine chikamu chimwe muzvitatu chevanhu vanosvika chiuru nemazana mashanu vakaurayiwa kubvira pakadzorerwa mutongo werufu muna 1976, mushure mekunge Dare Repamusorosoro rabvisa mutongo werufu wakaburitswa muma1.500.
Sarudzo yehurumende yemubatanidzwa ye tangazve kuurayiwa Pakutongwa kwerufu panguva yehutungamiriri hwaDonald Trump, vanhu gumi vakaurayiwa mumwedzi isingasviki mitanhatu, nhamba isingawanzoitika mumakore makumi mana apfuura, apo vatatu chete ndivo vakaurayiwa padanho rehurumende. Uyezve, zvidzidzo zvakaitwa neDeath Penalty Information Center zvakaratidza rusarura rwakasimba rwemadzinza mukuuraya vanhu: kubvira muna 1976, vanhu vatema vanosvika mazana matatu vakaurayiwa nekuda kwekuuraya vanhu vachena, nepo vanhu vachena makumi maviri nerimwe chete vakaurayiwa nekuda kwekuuraya vanhu vatema, kunyangwe huwandu hwekupondwa kwevanhu vemadzinza akasiyana husina kuenzana zvakanyanya.
Kune dzimwe nyika pasi rose, dzimwe nyika dzakanga dzambomisa kuurayiwa kwevanhu kwemakore dzakatangazve kuurayiwa kwevanhu munguva dzekuwedzera kwemhosva kana hugandanga. United States yakatangazve kuurayiwa kwevanhu muna 1977 mushure mekumiswa pakati pa1973 na1976; India yakauraya vanhu zvakare muna 2004 mushure memakore anoda kusvika gumi isina kuita izvi; uye Sri Lanka yakazivisa kuguma kwekumbomiswa kwayo, kunyangwe isina kuita chero kuurayiwa kwevanhu. Philippines yakadzosazve mutongo werufu muna 1993 mushure mekubviswa kwawo muna 1987, asi yakazobviswa zvakare muna 2006.
Nharo dzinotsigira uye dzinopikisa chirango cherufu
Nhaurirano pamusoro pemutongo werufu inotenderera pamusoro penharo dzetsika, dzekubatsira, dzemutemo, uye dzemanzwiro. Vatsigiri vanoti, kana paine dzimwe mhosva dzakaipa, mutongo werufu ndiwo chete mutongo unobvumirwa zvechokwadi. zvakaenzana uye zvakaenzanaIzvi zvinonyanya kuitika munyaya dzekupondwa kwevana kana kubatwa chibharo kwevana vadiki uko kunoguma nerufu. Kubva pamaonero aya, hupenyu hunotorwa kurasikirwa kusingatsivike, saka rufu rwemupari wemhosva chete ndirwo runogona kutsiva kukuvara kwacho zvishoma.
Imwe nharo inowanzo tsigira ndeyekudzivirira: zvinonzi kutyisidzira kuurayiwa kunotyisa matsotsi anogona kunge aripo kupfuura kugara mujeri kweupenyu hwese kana mimwe mitongo mirefu. Zvinotendwa kuti kana nzanga ichiziva kuti mhosva yakati ine chirango cherufu uye kuurayiwa kunotaurwa pachena, izvi zvinoderedza kuurayiwa kwavo. Uyezve, munguva yehondo, zvinonzi njodzi yekupfurwa ndiyo chete chirango chinoshanda chekudzivirira kutiza, zviito zveumbwende, kutengesa, kana kuparadza, sezvo zvikasadaro vamwe vaizoda jeri pane kuisa hupenyu hwavo panjodzi mumitsetse yehondo.
Dzimwe nguva nyaya yezvehupfumi inoshandiswawo: kuchengeta munhu akabatwa nemhosva dzakakomba mujeri kweupenyu hwese kunosanganisira mari yakawanda kumajeri uye, pakupedzisira, kune vanobhadhara mitero. Sekureva kwemaonero aya, chirango cherufu chingave sarudzo "yakachipa" pane kugara mujeri kweupenyu hwese; pfungwa inokakavadzana nevanorwisa kubviswa kwemutemo, vanoti kutongwa kwemutongo werufu kunowanzo kuve kwenguva refu uye kunodhura nekuda kwehuwandu hwakawanda hwezviwanikwa nekuchengetedzwa kunodiwa.
Kune rumwe rutivi, vamwe vatsigiri vanoti chirango cherufu hachisi kutsiva chaiko, asi kutaura kweruramisiro yekutsiva: kuita zvinoenderana nekukuvadzwa kwakakonzerwa. Zvinototaurwa kuti, kune dzimwe mhuri dzevakabatwa, kuurayiwa kwevakapihwa mhosva kunopa nyaradzo yakati wandei. kunyaradzwa kana kuvharwa kwemanzwiro izvo zvaisagona kuwanikwa neimwe chirango, zvichivabvumira kutanga kuvakazve hupenyu hwavo.
Mukupindura nharo idzi, vanopikisa kubviswa kwemutemo vanopa zvikonzero zvakawanda zvinopikisa. Kutanga, vanoti chirango cherufu chinoreva kubvuma kuti Hurumende ine simba rekutora hupenyu hwevagari vayo, vachiramba musimboti chaiwo wekuti simba reveruzhinji rakagadzirwa kuchengetedza hupenyu nekodzero dzevanhu. Kupa Hurumende simba rekuuraya, kunyangwe pasi pechifukidziro chepamutemo, kunoiisa padanho rakafanana nemunhu anoponda, kunyangwe kana paine zvikonzero. zvinangwa zviri pamutemo.
Uyezve, hunhu hwerufu husingadzoreki hunosimbiswa. Zvikanganiso zvinoitika mune chero hurongwa hwematare: kuferefeta kusina kuitwa zvakanaka, humbowo husina kururama, kubvuma mhosva kwakaitwa nekumanikidzwa, zvapupu zvisingavimbike… Mutongo werufu, nekusabvumira kudzoserwa shure kana waitwa, zvinoreva kubvuma kuti pachagara paine nhamba isingazivikanwe yevanhu vasina mhosva vanourayiwa. Zvidzidzo zvekuregererwa kwemhosva zvakavakirwa pahumbowo hweDNA zvinoratidza kuti vanhu vanopfuura mumwe pavanhu vashanu vakatongerwa rufu uye vakazoratidzwa kuti havana mhosva vakabvuma mhosva dzavasina kupara, kazhinji vachimanikidzwa, vachitya, kana vachimanikidzwa kutaurirana.
Kushanda zvakanaka kwechirango cherufu kunopokanawo zvakanyanya. Kuponda kwakawanda kunoitika mumamiriro ezvinhu e manzwiro epfungwaKudhakwa nedoro kana zvinodhaka, kana nechivimbo chekuti haubatwi, kune mamiriro ezvinhu umo kuverenga zvine musoro kwechirango kunodzikira simba rawo. Ongororo dzakawanda dzekuenzanisa pakati pematunhu ane chirango cherufu neasina hadzina kuwana humbowo hwakasimba hwekuti chinoderedza mhosva kupfuura kugara mujeri kweupenyu hwese kana zvimwe zvirango zvakakomba. Saka, nyanzvi dzakawanda dzinotenda kuti chinonyatsoderedza mhosva dzakakomba musanganiswa wekudzivirira kwevanhu, mapurisa anoshanda zvakanaka, hurongwa hwekutonga hunokurumidza, uye kudzora pfuti.
Imwe nharo inonyanya kukosha ndeyekuti chirango cherufu chinokanganisa vanhu. Kana tsotsi richiziva kuti mamwe mabasa ane chirango cherufu, rinogona kufunga kuti harina charinosara nacho uye rosarudza kuuraya zvapupu, mapurisa, kana vanhu vakatapwa vachiedza kutiza. Semuenzaniso, kana kubata chibharo kuchirangwa nerufu, mupari wemhosva anogona kutenda kuti kubvisa munhu anenge abatwa kunomupa mukana mukuru wekusarangwa pasina kuwedzera chirango chake. Nenzira iyi, kutyisidzira kuurayiwa kunogona kukurudzira hunhu hwechisimba hwakatokura.
Pavanhu, kutambura kukuru kwepfungwa kunokonzerwa nekumirira kuurayiwa kunonyanya kusimbiswa. Vanhu vari kumirira rufu vanogona kupedza makore kana makumi emakore vachinetseka zvakanyanya, vachitya, vachiora mwoyo, uye vachitofunga zvekuzviuraya, izvo zvinokanganisawo mhuri dzavo nevadikanwi vavo. Uyezve, hapana nzira "yakachena": kupfura, kuturikwa, kurohwa nematombo, kutemwa musoro, chigaro chemagetsi, kana kubaiwa jekiseni rinouraya zvese izvi inzira dzekuurawa idzo, kazhinji, dzakakundikana pakuedza kwekutanga, zvichiita kuti maitiro acho adzokororwe uye zvichiwedzera kurwadziwa nekutyisa.
Imwe pfungwa huru yepfungwa yevanoda kubvisa mutemo ndeyekuti chirango cherufu hachigadzirise munhu. Muhurongwa hwemazuva ano hwekuranga, zvirango hazvifanirwe kungovavarira kuranga nekudzivirira mhosva chete, asiwo dzorera Kusvika pazvinogoneka, mutadzi anofanira kupiwa mukana wekugadzirisa nyaya yake, kukumbira ruregerero, kana kugadzirisa kukuvara kwacho. Kuurayiwa kwemunhu kunobvisa mukana wekuchinja kana kudzoserwa. Zvinonzi, kana paine kuponda, kudzoserwa kwakakwana hakugoneki; kunyangwe zvakadaro, pfungwa yekupa mukana wekuzvishandura inoonekwa seyakakosha munyika dzakawanda dzakabvisa mutongo werufu.
Chekupedzisira, rusarura rwemaumbirwo mukushandiswa kwechirango cherufu rwakanyorwa. Vanhu vane zviwanikwa zvishoma zvehupfumi, madzinza mashoma, vanhu vane hurema hwepfungwa, kana avo vane dzidzo yakaderera vane mukana mukuru wekutongerwa rufu kupfuura avo vane zviwanikwa zvakawanda. dziviriro dziri nani dzemutemoMukutongwa kwevatongi kana kutongwa kwematare edzimhosva pasi pekumanikidzwa kwakanyanya nevezvenhau, zvinhu zvinoonekwa sekuti mupomerwi ane njodzi, chitarisiko chake, kana kuti pfungwa dzake dzinogona kukanganisa nyaya yacho, zvichiita kuti kushandiswa kwechirango chisingachinjiki kuve chinhu chinonetsa zvikuru.
Munyika dzakabudirira dzedemocracy, kunze kwedzishoma dzakadai seUnited States, Japan, neTaiwan, mutongo werufu hauchashandiswi. Munyika zhinji idzi, kubviswa kwemutemo kwaive chisarudzo chezvematongerwo enyika chakaitwa kunyangwe zvichipesana nepfungwa dzeruzhinji rwevanhu panguva iyoyo, zvichibva pakufunga kuti kuremekedza kodzero dzevanhu kwaida kuti zvibviswe mumutemo. Mumakore apfuura, munharaunda zhinji idzi, mutongo werufu warega kuonekwa sesarudzo yepamutemo, uye gakava rave kutarisisa zvakanyanya pakuwana nzira dzinoshanda dzekutonga. yakaringana uye inoshanda zvakanyanya pasina kushandisa nzira yekuurayiwa.
Kushanduka-shanduka kwenhoroondo, kufambira mberi kwemitemo yepasi rose, nhamba dzekuurayiwa kwevanhu, uye kufungisisa nezvetsika zvinopa mufananidzo umo nyika dzakawanda dziri kusiya mutongo werufu, nepo dzimwe dzichiramba dzichidaro uye dzimwe dzichizeza pakati pekuramba dzichimira kana kutora danho rekupedzisira rekubvisa mutemo. njodzi dzekukanganisaPasinei nekusarongeka mukushandiswa kwayo uye kukanganisa kwayo vanhu, gakava pamusoro pekuti nyika yedemokrasi inogona kuramba ichiuraya here muzita reruramisiro richiri pachena uye rinomutsa mibvunzo isina kugadzikana pamusoro pezvatinonzwisisa nekurangwa kwakarurama, kuchengetedzeka kwese, uye kuremekedza hupenyu hwevanhu.