Taura nezve kutsoropodzwa kwechitendero Hazvisi kungorwisa zvitendero zvevanhu kana kuseka kutenda. Zviri kupinda muchikamu chakakura chekudzidza, uko uzivi, sociology, nhoroondo, anthropology, psychology, uye dzidziso dzezvematongerwo enyika zvinosangana. Kubva kuKujekeswa kusvika nhasi, mibvunzo pamusoro paMwari, machechi, netsika dzechitendero zvakabatsira funga zvakadzama mashandiro anoita nzanga, simba rinoburitswa sei, uye kuti hunhu hwedu hunovakwa sei.
Mutsika zhinji dzemazuva ano dzekuEurope neLatin America, kushoropodzwa kwechitendero kwakabatana ne kushoropodzwa kweHurumendekuhutongi hwenyika uye kumarudzi ekutonga. Vanyori vakaita saFeuerbach, Marx, Freud, Durkheim, Eliade, Otto, pamwe chete nenyanzvi dzemazuva ano muzvidzidzo zvechitendero (Smith, McCutcheon, Nongbri, Fitzgerald, Casanova, nevamwe vakawanda) vakaparadza, nenzira dzakasiyana-siyana, zvatinonzwisisa ne "chitendero." Uye, kubva kuLatin America, maonero akasiyana akabuda anotarisa pachitendero chakakurumbira, hutongi hwenyika, uye kurwira magariro evanhu.
Zvinorevei chaizvo kuti "kutsoropodzwa kwechitendero"?
Mashoko acho "Kutsoropodza chitendero" Harina kana chirevo chimwe chete. K.H. Weger, mukudzidza kwake kwakakurumbira pamusoro penyaya iyi, anotiyeuchidza kuti tinogona kutaura nezvemhando dzakasiyana dzetsoropodzo: kutsoropodza kwemukati (kubva mukati metsika yechitendero), kutsoropodza kwezvitendero zvakasiyana (kubva kune chimwe chitendero kuenda kune chimwe), uye kutsoropodza kwekusatenda muna Mwari kana kuti kusatenda muna Mwari, uko kunobvunza kutenda muna Mwari kana kukosha kwechitendero chose. Kana shoko iri richishandiswa mupfungwa yaro chaiyo, rinowanzoreva rechipiri: iro rinoramba kuvapo kwaMwari kana kuti kubvunza kuti chitendero ndechechokwadi here.
Zvisinei, kunyangwe mukati meongororo iyoyo yekusavapo kwaMwari mune zvinhu zvakawanda zvakasiyana-siyana. Pfungwa yakajeka inoda kuti kutenda kuongororwe nepfungwa haina kufanana ne... Kusatenda muna Mwari kwaFreud mupfungwaKutsoropodzwa kwaMarx kwezvehupfumi kana ongororo dzemazuva ano dzinotarisa hukama hwemasimba. Ndosaka nhasi zviri nani kutaura nezve "kusatenda muna Mwari," muhuwandu, kana "kutsoropodzwa kwechitendero," nekuti kune nzira dzakasiyana-siyana dzekutaura uye nharo.
Chimwe chinhu chakakosha ndicho chinoparadzanisa kushoropodzwa kwe zviri mudzidziso (semuenzaniso, pfungwa yaMwari ane simba rose uye akanaka mukutarisana nehuipi hwenyika) kubva mukutsoropodzwa kwe social function yechitendero (kuti chinobvumidza sei hutungamiriri hwematunhu, chinoita kuti vanhu vazivikanwe, kana kuti chinokurudzira kuramba). Mumazuva ano, mitsetse yese miviri yakabatana, asi zvakakosha kuti uichengete mupfungwa dzako kuitira kuti usabatanidza zvese pamwechete.
Kujekeswa, Kant, uye mavambo ekutsoropodzwa kwemazuva ano
Kutsoropodzwa kwechitendero kwemazuva ano kunotanga zvakasimba mumashoko ekuti Kujekeswa kweEuropeImmanuel Kant anotaura izvi zvakajeka muchinyorwa chake chakakurumbira chinonzi "Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?" (1784): kuva neruzivo zvinoreva kubuda mu "kusakura" kwawakazvigadzirira wozvifungira wega. Chirevo chinoti, "Shinga kuziva"Zvinotikurudzira kuti tirege kupa mutongo kune vane masimba vekunze, kusanganisira vechitendero, uye kuti tiongorore zvitendero zvakagara nhaka."
Kuda kuzvitonga uku kunoita kuti pave nekufunga patsva nezve "Uchapupu hwekuvapo kwaMwari"Kant anoongorora humbowo hwechinyakare ohuderedza kuita mhando dzepfungwa dze ontological, obva aramba kuti kufunga kwedzidziso kunogona kuratidza kuvapo kwaMwari. Nekuisa miganhu paruzivo rwe metaphysical, anodyara mbeu yakakosha: kana Mwari asingakwanise kuratidzwa zvine musoro, chitendero hachichagoni kungoratidzwa seruzivo rwunozviratidza, asi sesarudzo inofanira kururamiswa neimwe nzira.
Kuwedzera pane izvi kune kuchinja kwekunzwa pfungwa ye "uchapupu". Nekuwedzera kwesainzi chaiyo, pane katsika kekutarisira humbowo hwakafanana kubva kune chero chirevo chakakomba. humbowo hwakasimba uye hunosimbiswaDzidziso yekare yechitendero, iyo yaitora seyakareruka humbowo hwekuti Mwari ariko uye yakataura nezvevanhu vatotenda kare, yava kutanga kufadza vatsoropodzi vemazuva ano: hazvina kukwana kukumbira simba, munhu anofanira kupindura kune rudzi rwakanyanya rwekunzwisisa.
Zvichivakwa pahwaro uhwu hwakajekeswa, ongororo huru dzezana remakore rechi19 nerechi20 dzaizobuda, dzisingachatarisi chete kana Mwari ariko, asi kuti nei vanhu vachitenda, zvinodiwa zvikuru nekutenda, uye kuti zvinoguma nei pahupenyu hwevanhu nehwezvematongerwo enyika. Kuchinja uku, kubva padzidziso dzepasi rose kuenda kudzidziso dzevanhu nedzenhoroondo, ndiko kwakakosha pakunzwisisa ongororo yemazuva ano.
Feuerbach nechitendero sefungidziro yevanhu
Ludwig Feuerbach anoona shanduko huru nekugadzira zvine simba chinyorwa chekufungidziraKwaari, zvatinoti "Mwari" hachisi chimwe chinhu kunze kwechimiro chemunhu chisina chinangwa: munhu anotora hunhu hwake hwakanakisisa (rudo, kururamisira, uchenjeri), anohuparadzanisa kubva kwaari, anohupedzisa uye anohufunga semunhu wekunze uye wepamusoro.
Mubasa rake pamusoro pepfungwa dzechiKristu, Feuerbach anotaura kuti Chitendero hukama hwemunhu naye pachakeAsi zvinoonekwa sekunge hukama nemumwe munhu. Mwari, muchokwadi, angave ari munhu akabviswa zvipingamupinyi zvake zvemunhu nemuviri, akaburitswa kunze kwenyaya yacho uye akanamatwa sekunge akasiyana. Nokudaro, hunhu hunopiwa kuna Mwari (kunaka kusingaperi, kuziva zvese, nezvimwewo) hahusi chinhu kunze kwehunhu hwevanhu hwakatorwa zvakanyanya.
Zvinorehwa nekuverenga uku zvakanyanya: kana Mwari ari fungidziro, kutsoropodzwa kwechitendero hakusanganisiri kuramba chisikwa chekunze, asi mu kuziva muna Mwari chimiro chedu chakaparadzaniswaSaka, basa racho harisi rekuparadza chitendero kubva kunze, asi kudzoreredza, kubva pamaonero evanhu, zviri muchitendero zvakaiswa kudenga. Saka dzidziso yechitendero inova, mumaonero aFeuerbach, rudzi rwedzidziso yevanhu.
Maonero aya aizova nemhedzisiro huru kune vekuruboshwe veHegelian uye, kunyanya, kuna Marx mudiki, uyo aizopfuura nepakati pechido chechokwadi cheFeuerbachian asati agadzirisa zvakanyanya chikumbiro chake uye achichinja pfungwa kubva pamunhu kuenda kune yemunhu. mamiriro ezvehupfumi nemagariro evanhu.
Marx: Chitendero sekufema, kupokana, uye pfungwa dzenhema
Muzvinyorwa zvake zvekutanga, kunyanya musumo ye Mupiro mukutsoropodzwa kweuzivi hwaHegel hwemutemoKarl Marx ndiye akagadzira imwe yenzira dzakakurumbira dzekuongorora chitendero. Mashoko ekuti "chitendero chinhu chinodhaka vanhu" akazivikanwa kubva muchinyorwa ichocho, asi anowanzo taurwa ari ega uye asina kutaurwa, izvo zvinokanganisa zvazvinoreva. Muchokwadi, Marx anonyora kuti chitendero "Kugomera kwechisikwa chakadzvinyirirwa, moyo wenyika isina tsitsi, uye mweya wemamiriro ezvinhu asina mweya. Ndiyo mushonga wevanhu.".
Asati asvika pamutsara iwoyo wakakurumbira, Marx anotaura chimwe chinhu icho vazhinji vevateveri vake vane pfungwa dzakasimba vakakanganwa: Kutambura kwechitendero kunoratidza kutambura chaiko uye kuratidzira kutambura ikoko.Nemamwe mashoko, chitendero hachingonyaradzi chete, asiwo chine pfungwa yekusatevedzera mitemo, kuramba mararamiro asingatsungiririki. Kuchideredza kuita kunyengera kana kushandisa simba, sezvakaitwa nevamwe vaMarxist-Leninist, kunobvisa pfungwa iyi isina kujeka.
Kuna Marx, chitendero chinogadzirwa nenyika ine magariro akatsauka, neHurumende nenzanga inogadzira kuziva chokwadi kwakakanganisikaChitendero chinoshanda semhando yepfungwa: chinopa pfungwa yenyika mumutauro unozivikanwa, mvumo yetsika, mukana wekunyaradza nekururamisa. Sezvaanotaura, "kuzivikanwa kunoshamisa kwehunhu hwevanhu," nekuti hunhu ihwohwo hahuna kubudirira munharaunda iripo.
Saka, "kubviswa" kwechitendero hakungogumiri pakukumbira vanhu kuti vasiye zvavanotenda. Marx anosimbirira kuti kukurudzira vanhu kuti vasiye zvinhu zvekufungidzira zvinoreva, panguva imwe chete, shandura mamiriro ezvinhu anoita kuti fungidziro idzodzo dzive dzakakoshaKutsoropodzwa kwechitendero, muchidimbu, itsoropodzo ye "mupata wemisodzi" iyo chitendero chiri halo yayo. Munyika isina kururama, kutenda chiratidzo uye kuratidzira, zvose kunyaradzwa uye chipingamupinyi pakusunungurwa kwezvinhu.
Muchirongwa ichi, chitendero chine zviso zviviri, semwari wekare ainzi Janus: zvichionekwa kubva kumusoro, kubva pamaonero evapfumi, chinoita se kururamisa kwehurongwa huripoTsigiro yesimba mutsika, chifukidziro chitsvene chinotsigira kutonga. Kana tichitarisa pasi, kubva kumapoka epasi, inzvimbo yekupotera, nzvimbo yekunyaradza, nzira yekufungidzira yekuti "kwete" kunyika inorwadza. Kururamiswa nekunyaradzwa zvinosangana mumhedzisiro yazvo yekuchengetedza, asi hazvichinjiki kune mumwe nemumwe.
Kutsoropodzwa kwechitendero netsika muMarx mudiki
Kubatana kuripo pakati pechitendero netsika dzechitendero ndeimwe pfungwa huru mukukura kwaMarx zvichienzaniswa nekwaFeuerbach. Kunyange zvazvo wechipiri achinyanya kutarisa pane chikamu chepfungwa nepfungwa Nezvepfungwa dzechitendero, Marx anobvunza zvekuita mune zvematongerwo enyika nepfungwa iyi. Mune imwe ndima yakakurumbira, anotaura kuti "pfungwa dzechitendero dzapera" muGermany uye kuti pfungwa iyi ndiyo "pfungwa dzepfungwa dzese."
Izvi zvinogona kuverengwa nenzira mbiri dzinoenderana. Kune rumwe rutivi, Marx anobvuma chikwereti chake kuna Feuerbach: anotora sezviri pachena kuti chikamu chikuru che kufumurwa kwechitendero nepfungwa Izvi zvakatoitwa. Kuramba achiratidza kuti Mwari munhu anofungira, kwaari, kwaizove kufamba-famba asingafambi. Uyezve, anosimbisa kuti pasina kutsoropodzwa uku, kushoropodzwa kwevanhu kwakasimba hakugoneki, nekuti chitendero chinoshanda senhovo yepfungwa yeHurumende nehukama hwevanhu.
Mupfungwa iyoyo, basa raMarx pachake harisi rekuramba achirwisa chitendero muchidimbu, asi kugadzira "Kutsoropodzwa kwenyika" izvo zvinorwisa zvakananga zvematongerwo enyika nehupfumi zvinounza kuparadzaniswa. Chitendero chinofanira kukundwa, asi kukunda kwacho kwechokwadi kunoda kushandurwa kwemamiriro emagariro evanhu anochitsigira. Kana murairo wakavakirwa pakushandiswa zvisina kunaka uye kusaenzana wabviswa chete ndipo pachakwanisika kubvisa kudiwa kwe "zuva rekunyepedzera" iro rinotenderera vanhu nepo vanhu vasingazvitendereri vega.
Saka, muzvinyorwa zvepakutanga, chitendero nekusunungurwa kwevashandi zvinoita sezviri pedyo. Kana simba rechitendero rekuita kuti urombo nenhamo zvive zvechisikigo rikasabviswa, vashandi havazokwanisi... vanoziva mamiriro avo ezvinhu uye varonge kuchichinja. Kutsoropodzwa kwechitendero nokudaro idanho rekutanga mukukura kwekuziva nezvemapoka, asi kwete rekupedzisira. Nhoroondo, Marx anosimbisa, inofanira kutora basa rekuita kuti chokwadi ichi chive chechokwadi, kana "imwe nyika" yechitendero yanyangarika.
Dzimwe ongororo huru: Nietzsche, Freud, uye dambudziko rekutambura
Kunze kwaFeuerbach naMarx, mazuva ano aona vamwe vatsoropodzi vane simba vechitendero. Mumwe wavo ndewekuti Friedrich NietzscheKwaari, kutenda kunobva muzviitiko zvakanyanya zvesimba nekutya. Kana vanhu vachinzwa vakundwa nemanzwiro avo kana nemasimba avasinganzwisisi, vanowanzo gadzira zvinhu zvepamusoro kuti vatsanangure zviri kuitika kwavari. Chitendero, nenzira iyi, imhinduro kune simba remunhu nekushaya simba, zvinoonekwa sechinhu chisingazivikanwi uye chinotyisidzira.
Sigmund Freud, kubva pamaonero epfungwa dzakadzama, anotsanangura chitendero sepfungwa zvinodiwa zvevana zvisina kuzadzikiswaMumagwaro akadai se Remangwana rekufungidziraAnotsanangura kutenda muna Mwari sekudzokera shure kukushaya simba kwehudiki: mukuru, achiziva kusakwanisa kwake kuzviisa pasi penjodzi dzenyika nepfungwa dzake, anotsvaga munhu ane hunhu hwakakodzera kuti ape kuchengetedzwa uye zvinoreva. Nokudaro anosimudzira mufananidzo wababa wakanyanya kukosha kusvika kurudzi rwehumwari uye anouisa muchokwadi.
Kubva pamaonero aya, chitendero chingave nzira yekugadzirisa nepfungwaPane kugamuchira kuoma kwenyika uye njodzi yekuvapo, munhu wacho anovanda mukufungidzira kunoderedza kutya kwake. Freud haarambi kuti chitendero chinoita mabasa akakosha epfungwa, asi anonzwisisa kuti kukunda chitendero ichi chikamu chekukura kwemaonero akasimba uye ane musoro pamusoro pechokwadi.
Zvichienderana nekutsoropodza kwekufunga uye kusava nechokwadi, Bertrand Russell, uyo akazvitsanangura semunhu asingazive Mwari, akasimbisa kuti simba guru rinosunda chitendero ndi... kutyaKutya zvakasikwa, zvingaitwa nevamwe kwatiri, uye zvingaitwa nesu isu pachedu, zvichitungamirirwa nezvido zvedu. Chitendero chaizoderedza kutya uku, chichipa hurongwa hwetsika uye vimbiso yekudzivirirwa, asi pasina kugamuchira zvirevo zvisingagoni kuratidzwa.
Vazhinji vasingatendi kuti kuna Mwari uye vasingatendi kuti Mwari ariko mazuva ano vakadzora matauriro ekurwa kwenhaurirano dzekare. Vanyori vakaita saJean Améry vanotaura nezve "kusatenda muna Mwari pasina kutsamwiswa"Havachatsvagi kutyisidzira vatendi asi kuti vaone, vasina hanya, kuti dzidziso dzechivanhu dzarasikirwa nesimba radzo rekutenda kune zvikamu zvakakura zvevanhu. Panguva imwe chete, vanobvuma kuti hapana "humbowo" hunoratidza kuti Mwari haapo, sezvakangoitawo kuti hapana kuratidzwa kwechokwadi kwekuvapo kwake.
Kutenda, zvitendero zvakasiyana-siyana, uye nzira itsva dzekutsoropodza
Imwe yenzira dzinogara dziripo dzekutsoropodza kwemazuva ano ndeye theodicyNdiko kuti, mubvunzo wekuti Mwari akanaka uye ane simba rose angayananisa sei nehukuru hwekutambura kwevanhu. Njodzi dzechisikigo dzinowedzerwa nehutsinye hwenhoroondo, hondo, kuurayiwa kwevanhu, uye kusaenzana kwezvirongwa. Vatsoropodzi vazhinji vanotenda kuti kukwezva kurongwa kwakavanzika kana rusununguko rwevanhu hakugadzirisi zvachose kunyadziswa kwehuipi.
Kuwedzera kune izvozvo ndiko kuwedzera kweruzivo rwe zvitendero zvakasiyana-siyanaRuzivo rwetsika dzakasiyana-siyana munhoroondo yese uye kuvapo kwezvitendero zvakasiyana munzvimbo imwe chete munharaunda imwe chete kunoita kuti pave nemubvunzo wekuti pane vanhu vakawanda vanosarudza kuva vega. Izvi zvinosimbisa rusununguko rwevanhu, zvichisimbiswa nehurumende dzedemocracy dzinoziva rusununguko rwehana, zvinoita kuti vazhinji vasave nechokwadi kwete chete kuti chitendero "chechokwadi" ndechipi, asiwo pfungwa yehupenyu hwepashure perufu kana zvisikwa zvinopfuura mwero.
Kubva pamaonero echitendero, vafungi vakaita saKarl Rahner vakataura kuti hatichagoni kutaura nezvavo "Uchapupu" hwaMwari nenzira yesainzi yechisikigoAsi, chinodiwa rudzi rwe "mystagogy," nhungamiro inobatsira munhu kuona, kubva muruzivo rwevanhu, mukana unobvira wekuenda kune zvinopfuura. Izvi zvinoreva kutora nharo dzekuongorora chitendero zvakakomba uye kuziva kuti sarudzo yekutenda kana kusatenda, pakupedzisira, chiito chehana yakasununguka, kwete mhedziso inomanikidzwa nekufunga.
Panguva imwe cheteyo, tsvakiridzo yezvedzidzo yakatoita kuti pfungwa ye "chitendero" ive nezvinetso. Vanyori vakaita se Wilfred Cantwell Smith, Jonathan Z. Smith, Timothy Fitzgerald, Russell McCutcheon kana Brent Nongbri Vakaratidza kuti "chitendero" chikamu chemazuva ano, chakabatana nemazuva ano ekuMadokero, icho chinounganidza zvinhu zvakasiyana-siyana pasi pezita rimwe chete uye icho chagara chichiisa miganhu pakati pe "chitendero" ne "chisiri chenyika" nenzira inonakidza.
Vamwe vanoti kutaura nezve "chitendero" sechinhu chakasiyana nezvematongerwo enyika, zvehupfumi, kana tsika pachazvo imhedzisiro yemaonero echiKristu chekuMadokero. Vatsoropodzi vakaita saFitzgerald naMcCutcheon vakataura kuti "chitendero" chinowanzo shanda se zano repfungwa nerezvematongerwo enyikaMaitiro aya, ayo anoita kuti mamwe maitiro nezvitendero zvizivikanwe asi achiti mamwe mashura kana kuti kunyanyisa, haana kunyanya kunangana nezvitendero pachazvo asi anonyanya kunangana nemapoka atinoshandisa kuzvironga.
Kusada zvechitendero, chitendero chakararama uye kutsoropodzwa kubva kuLatin America
Munyaya dzezvemagariro evanhu, José Casanova akataura nezve "madzinza ekuti vanhu vasave venyika," zvichiratidza kuti maitiro anoita kuti chitendero chirasikirwe nesimba rezvematongerwo enyika kana mukurumbira wevanhu haasi akafanana kwese kwese. Basa rake rave riri kiyi yekuparadza pfungwa yekuti kushanduka kwezvinhu nenzira yemazuva ano kunotungamira kune kushanduka kwezvinhu. kunyangarika kwechitenderoAsi, kwave nekuchinjwa kwemamiriro ezvinhu, kuchinja, uye nzira itsva dzekuonekwa kwechitendero pachena.
Kubva kuLatin America, tsvakurudzo pamusoro pechitendero yatora danho rakasiyana. Vanyori vakaita sa René de la Torre, Alejandro Frigerio, Néstor Da Costa, Pablo Semán, Morello kana Somma, Bargsted naValenzuela Vakadzidza nezvezvitendero zvakakurumbira, zvitendero zvakasiyana-siyana, uye shanduko mumaonero ezvitendero munharaunda iyi. Basa ravo rinoratidza "mazuva ano anoshamisa": kure nekusanyanya kusada zvenyika, nzanga dzeLatin America dzinosanganisa hunyanzvi hwekutenga zvinhu, midhiya, uye marudzi matsva ekunamata.
Maonero aya anosimbisa chitendero chakararamaNdiko kuti, vanhuwo zvavo vanotora, vanodudzira patsva, uye vanogadzira tsika muhupenyu hwavo hwezuva nezuva. Kunamata kwevanhu vakawanda hakusi kungodzokorora dzidziso dzepamutemo chete, asi inzvimbo yekusika zvinhu zvinoratidza hunyanzvi, uko zvinhu zvekuramba uye zvekurega, zvekubvumidza kurongeka uye kutarisira shanduko, zvinogara pamwe chete.
Panguva imwe chete, kubva pamaonero ekubvisa hutongi hwekoloni uye ekuongorora, vanyori vakaita se Andrés Prado Vakapa pfungwa yekuti "dzinza rechitendero chimwe chete" ndiro raive zano remakoloni: chitendero chimwe chete, uye chiKristu kunyanya, chaizoshanda sechishandiso chikuru mukuisa hurongwa hwezvematongerwo enyika netsika muEurope kune vamwe vanhu. Nenzira iyi, chitendero chinoonekwa kwete senyaradzo kana kuratidzira chete, asiwo se tekinoroji yekutonga zvakabatanidzwa munhoroondo yekukunda nekutorwa kwenyika.
Nyanzvi dzezvechitendero nevazivi vakaita saJuan Carlos Scannone, pamwe chete nemapoka akaunganidzwa mumavhoriyamu anotaura nezveuzivi hwechitendero kubva kuLatin America, vakaedza kufunga nezve uzivi hwechitendero chiripoizvo zvinotangira kubva muchokwadi cheLatin America, kubva muhurombo hwayo nehwakabviswa, uye izvo zvinofungidzira zvese kutsoropodzwa kwemazuva ano pamwe nezvikamu zvekusunungura zviripo mune dzimwe tsika dzechitendero (semuenzaniso, mudzidziso yerusununguko).
Fenomenology yechitendero, zvitsvene uye kusawirirana
Pamwe chete nepfungwa dzekuti Mwari haako kana kuti haakoshi, kwavewo nenzira dzakaedza kunzwisisa kubva muruzivo rwevanhu, pasina kuramba kusawirirana kunokonzerwa nechitendero. zviitiko zvechitenderoYakagadzirwa nevanyori vakaita saGerardus van der Leeuw uye, munharaunda yeHispanic, naJuan MartÃn Velasco, chinangwa chayo ndechekutsanangura maitiro ekuonekwa kwezvitsvene mukuziva uye mutsika.
Mircea Eliade akasiyanisa pakati pechinhu chitsvene nechisina kuchena, achiratidza kuti tsika dzevanhu dzinogadzira sei nzvimbo nenguva panguva dzakapwanyika munzvimbo tsvene. Rudolf Otto, iye pachake, akataura nezve "chitsvene" sechiitiko che "chakavanzika chikuru uye chinonakidza"Chimwe chinhu chinokwezva uye chinokunda, uye chisingagone kupedzwa nemapoka ane musoro kana etsika. Maonero aya haasi ekungokumbira ruregerero asi ekutsanangura: anoedza kutsanangura kuti sei chiitiko chezvitsvene chave chichienderera mberi zvakadaro.
Panguva imwe cheteyo, tsika dzechinyakare dzesociology, naÉmile Durkheim ari pamberi, vakataura nezvechitendero senzira yekudzidzisa chokwadi chemagariro evanhu. En Mhando dzekutanga dzehupenyu hwechitenderoDurkheim ainzwisisa chitendero senzira yezvitendero netsika dzine chekuita nezvinhu zvitsvene zvinobatanidza avo vanogovana navo munzanga imwe chete ine tsika dzakanaka. Kubva pamaonero aya, chitendero chaizova nzira yakanaka yekusimbisa kubatana kwevanhu uye kuratidza nzanga pachayo.
Zvisinei, mudzidziso yemazuva ano, vanyori vakati wandei vakadzokororazve mapoka aya kuti vaabvunze. Richard King akataura nezve "kutendeuka kwaCopernicus" muzvidzidzo zvechitendero, achikurudzira kuchinja kwekutarisa kubva kuzvinhu zvinokosha kuenda ku maitiro, hurukuro uye hukama hwemasimba izvo zvinogadzira zvatinodaidza kuti "chitendero". Russell McCutcheon naWilliam Arnal, mu Chitsvene ndicho Chisina KuchenaVanosimbisa hunhu hwezvematongerwo enyika hwekusiyana pakati pezvinhu zvitsvene nezvisina kuchena, uye vanoti muganhu uyu unowanzo shandira zvido zvakananga.
Mupfungwa iyi, kushoropodzwa kwechitendero hakunzwisiswi sekurwiswa kwekutenda kwevanhu zvakananga, asi sekuongorora kuti dzimwe nyaya netsika zvinova sei masangano, kuti ndiani anosarudza kuti chii chiri "chitendero" uye chii chisiri, uye kuti zvisarudzo izvozvo zvinokanganisa sei kugoverwa kwesimba rekufananidzira uye rezvinhu mukati menzanga.
